Cyberbullying refers to intentional and repeated harm that others inflict via a digital device [1] and is usually defined in the literature as “an aggressive, intentional act carried out by a group or individual, using electronic forms of contact, repeatedly and over time against a victim who cannot easily defend him or herself” [2 p.376]. Although Cyberbullying is regarded as a serious health and growing social problem [3, 4] and a significant amount of literature on cyberbullying exists, to date there exists no universally accepted definition [5].
Cyberbullying refers to “incidents where individuals use technology to harass, threaten, humiliate, or otherwise hassle others. For example, a person can send hurtful texts to others or spread rumors using smartphones or tablets. Some have also targeted others through hurtful content on social media, livestreaming platforms, and metaverse environments. Still others might repeatedly threaten or stalk through private messages or anonymous apps” [6, p.2]. Notably, cyberbullying takes place on different platforms such as texts or apps, photo messaging, videos, online games and social media platforms. More recently, we are also observing cyberbullying behaviour in extended reality such as in virtual or augmented reality [6].
How does cyberbullying differ from “traditional” bullying?
Although evidence suggests that (offline) bullying and cyberbullying are not completely separate phenomena, there are a number of features that distinguish online from offline bullying [e.g., 7] such as the fact that cyberbullying can potentially reach a larger audience, and cyber bullies can be “anonymous” and physically “distant” from their victims making perpetrators less aware of the potential damage inflicted on victims [2, 8]. Traditional definitions of bullying include aspects such as intentional, repetitive character and the imbalance of power. However, aspects such as repetition or imbalance of power between perpetrator and victim may be less relevant in online contexts and, therefore, less reliable for determining the incidence of cyberbullying [e.g., 9, 10].
How common is cyberbullying?
Although cyberbullying is a concerning problem, it is challenging to determine how common it really is [4]. For instance, researchers [11] examined 131 research studies of cyberbullying and they found out that estimates of cyberbullying varied greatly and tended to range from prevalence figures of 10–40% depending on how cyberbullying was defined and on the age of the victims. Other studies have also found considerable differences both within and across countries. For example, USA studies suggest that victimisation rates ranged from 20.8–40.6% [12], with a more recent study suggesting it is as high as 59% of adolescents [13]. In the UK a study found that 21.2% of 11–19-year-olds have experienced cyberbullying [14]. In Europe, the EU Kids Online found that cyberbullying had increased from 8–12% from 2010 to 2014 with girls seeming to be more affected as their rates had risen to 15% [15]. We can see that cyberbullying figures are difficult to determine, and some studies report statistics much lower than others depending on how cyberbullying is defined, measured, or understood by CYP [4].
How serious is cyberbullying?
There is consensus that there can be serious consequences for the victims of cyberbullying. These include embarrassment, fear, and upset, avoidance of the Internet [16]; being subject to social isolation, social withdrawal, low self-esteem, anxiety, and depression [4] as well as school absence and lower grades [17] [18]. Furthermore, the bullying conduct can impact the victims’ academic performance, and lead to emotional trauma [19]. Cyberbullying has the “potential to inflict serious psychological, emotional, or social harm” [20 p.149] and has also been associated to both victims’ and bullies’ psychosocial maladjustment [21]. More recent research [11] has confirmed that there is a range of mental health and physical health problems resulting from cyberbullying and that the impact and effects of cyberbullying were profound on the victims.
A major concern for practitioners, parents and society is the impact that cyberbullying can have on self-harm and (attempted) suicide [4]. There is some evidence indicating that there is a relationship between being a victim of cyberbullying and these serious consequences [22]. However, it is important to stress that situations of online risk do not always result in harm. Nevertheless, when harm arises the impact on some CYP can be devastating.
Are all children and young people (CYP) affected equally by cyberbullying?
Evidence suggests that some groups of CYP are more likely to become victims of cyberbullying. For example, those with disabilities [23], those with mental health conditions, and those from lower socio-economic indices [24]. Research shows that young people with behavioural and emotional mental health conditions do experience high levels of bullying and cyberbullying [25].
The impact cyberbullying can have on a personal level depends on several factors. These include individual characteristics (e.g., personality traits of bullies and victims, the capacity of the victim to cope with the incident), contextual factors such as the form of the cyber aggression, the media employed to inflict harm [2] but also the (social) support available for victims (e.g., at home, school, through their peers or through trusted persons in their environment). This means that cyberbullying can impact different children in different ways depending on the mechanisms and support they have at their disposal and the (personal) strategies employed to tackle this type of aggression (e.g., effective coping strategies). We must remember that the bullies themselves need attention too. Their behaviour may indicate some underlying personal, family, or social difficulties. Moreover, they may be victims of bullying too [26].
Last, schools should also pay attention to the broader contexts in which cyberbullying occurs because, as we know from research, the repercussions of cyberbullying can go far beyond the children directly involved in the incidents. For instance, a severe cyberbullying incident can negatively affect a class, a school or even families and communities.
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